The American Revolution

 

The American Revolution     Background The American Revolution (1765-89) was a period of political upheaval in Great Britain’s 13 North American colonies that culminated in the Declaration of Independence, a seven-year war, and the formation of the world’s earliest modern republic via the US Constitution (read overview). It was a watershed moment in political history, paving the way for dozens of independence movements worldwide, including in France, Haiti, and others. Causes British settlements sprang up along the Atlantic coast during the 17th century, forming a unique colonial identity. France, Holland, and Spain also settled the region (see timeline). With the help of American colonists, Great Britain won territory between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River (as well as much of Canada) after defeating France in the French and Indian War (1754-63). Further westward expansion was outlawed to avoid more war—which had doubled British debt. To pay that debt, Parliament enacted tax laws (from 3,000 miles away), including the Stamp Act (1765)—the first direct tax on the colonies—and the Townshend Acts (1767), which taxed essential goods like tea (read economic history). In response, indignant colonists united to boycott British goods and argued colonists should have a voice in Parliament if they were directly taxed—a position the Crown resisted out of logistics and fears of empowering the colonists (though some British agreed with the Americans). Amid the backlash, the British occupied Boston, leading to the Boston Massacre (1770), where British troops—defended by upstart lawyer John Adams at trial—killed five members of a protest. After the Boston Tea Party (1773)—which saw the radical Sons of Liberty dump 240 chests of Bohea tea into Boston Harbor out of protest—Parliament passed more aggressive laws in the Intolerable Acts (1774). The laws’ severity prompted delegates to gather and assert colonists’ right to self-governance at the First Continental Congress—assertions Britain ignored. Amid increasing revolutionary fervor, British troops set out to capture ammunition at Concord outside of Boston. Thousands of militia soldiers responded to professional messenger Paul Revere’s call to arms, sending the troops back to Boston after battles at Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775.   Revolution of Ideas The conflict came amid the Age of Enlightenment, a century-long intellectual movement emphasizing reason over tradition and authority. Enlightenment thinkers like John Locke articulated visions of communal life grounded in equality, natural rights, popular sovereignty, and the rule of law. Inspired by ancient sources, thinkers derived ideas of self-governance from Athenian democracy and government systems of checks and balances from Roman republicanism. Delegates at the Second Continental Congress framed critiques of British actions as violations of universal human rights and laws. Such principles (read key ideas) would form the basis of the Declaration of Independence in 1776, written by Thomas Jefferson with the help of the Committee of Five. The War Virginia’s George Washington was named the Continental Army general, bringing experience to the militias (see portraits). Despite having a smaller force and fewer resources, Washington effectively chose battles with the British and their naval superiority in a war of attrition (see key battles). A victory in Saratoga, New York, in 1777 drew in France as an American ally, transforming the war into a global conflict. Moving the battle to the loyalist South, the British won many conventional engagements but were undermined by effective rebel guerrilla tactics deployed by the “Swamp Fox” Francis Marion. An embattled British army sought evacuation from Virginia in 1781, where the rebels successfully laid siege to Yorktown and forced a British surrender. There would be about another year of civil conflict before the war ended with the Treaty of Paris. Impact and Legacy The revolution originated the world’s first modern republic—a definitive break from the rule of sovereign kings and queens in favor of the will of the people. States wrote constitutions adhering to Enlightenment ideals and laid the groundwork for broader political participation. Independence forced the Americans to develop their own system of government, first with the Articles of Confederation, whose lack of tax power and weak central authority led to a more robust US Constitution in 1789—and inspired independence movements around the world.